Exchange Student in Japan

Being an exchange student in Japan is considered as a life-changing experience for me. It's like a great prize I've been given. My whole experience so far has been abosolutely wonderful. Studying abroad is not a general education. It taught me life and gave me a lot experinces. Having a year during exchange allowed me to think out of the box and think deeply about what I desire to achieve in the future. Moreover, I've learnt many new things such as Japanese language which has improved very fast as time has gone, solving problem skill, or receiving an education in another teaching style which is completely different from my home. I'm very thankful for everything. However, there were some problems and obstacles happened to me. I was experienced a bit of home sickness because it was my first time living really far from home so it was very hard at first. But I got recovered very quickly because I had nice friends and Kyoto people are very nice and welcoming. And other problems that I wasn't expected before. After I retuned home, I wish that I could use what I've learnt from this exchange program to fulfill and to lead my life to a better position. Accomplishment of Objectives 1. Objectives and Significance: Describe the objectives and significance of the overseas study you implemented. First, I would like to have an opportunity to learn new languages apart from English which could be a special skill in the future. I believed that being in a language society that we want to learn will improve language skills in real life rather than studying in Thailand. As I was being surrounded by Japapese language every day including speaking and listening in the right context. Language learning took place very quickly under these environments. As the result, I am be able to communicate in Japanese even I'm not so fluently but it has improved much more than I expected. The second is I think that studying abroad would help me to open up the new worldview that I never had before both inside and outside classrooms. Studying in Japan gave me an experience with different education systems. There was an opportunity to choose courses that are not taught in Thailand and I got a very good education by studying in particular subjects with professors who have different teaching styles which are totally different from my home university. This allows me to study more effectively in the new way and extend my ideas and attitutes. Third, I would like to have an opportunity to make friends with people all around the would who speak different languages and have different backgrounds so we could learn something new and exchange ideas, attitudes to each other because culture is more than just a language but include lifestyle, belief, values and habits of people in the society. I learnt how to communicate in new more ways. Not only speaking but also using body-languages and gesture in order to express my own opinions and to interact with people who have different background to understand others clearly. And these have been developing my interpersonal skills. I feel like I could communicate easily with anybody right now. The last is I expected to improve myself to be more mature and more stronger. As when I was in Thailand, my parent always give me supports whenever I need help so that I want to practice to rely on myself and I want to try seeing things differently. Plus, I got a chance to discover new strengths and face new challenges including solving problems under unfamiliar situations. Finally, I returned home with a wider perspective and I've became more open-minded, confident in myself and choices I've made. Future Perspectives Describe briefly whether you could achieve your goals as they were initially planned. Also, explain clearly how to utilize the accomplishments of this opportunity, such as scholarly paper, dissertation or presentation at a conference. As I've gained so many experiences and life-long knowledge from this exchange program, I wish these experiences could help me achieve my future goals which are the future career and I want to further my study abroad. When I was in Japan, I've seen the interesting study style and saw how other students do presentations in class. Therefore, I've got many interesting ideas and that was really attract me to continue my studies abroad because I think there're so many things that I haven't explored yet. Moreover, It helped me working on my dissertation more efficiently since I've talked to many professors in Kyoto university and they gave me a lot of suggestions about doing a dissertation.

Michael Jordan & Basketball

When someone says the name Michael Jordan, the first thing that comes to mind is basketball, The Chicago Bulls and Nike shoes. Through the years, Michael Jordan has proved time and time again that he is the greatest basketball player ever, and by performing in this rapidly expanding sporting field, he has gained tremendous popularity throughout the world. People of all ages and from all nationalities have gathered to watch him play. A journalist states ‘even your Aunt Matilda might not know nothing about basketball, liked watching him play† (Jonathon 1999:58). Jordan has become more than just an entertainer. He is a hero and a role model amongst basketball spectators. Johnson claims that ‘he is the most famous American in the world† (ibid.). Perhaps he was born to be the best. Even though he is a star, Michael†s childhood had been very distressing. In fact, Michael Jordan was nearly miscarried by his mother. His nose bled from birth till he was five, he nearly suffocated when he fell behind the bed as a baby and nearly killed himself when an electrocution threw him three feet. In Jordan†s own words, he exclaims I mean my girlfriend got swept in a flood and drowned when we were in college. Another time, I was swimming with a friend when both of us got pulled into the ocean by a strong undertow. I was able to get free and make it back to land. He never made it back (Jordan 1998:96). Additionally, after going through so many traumatic and distressing times, not many people would have been able to live their dreams. But Jordan performed the task of living his dream exceptionally well. Despite a somewhat desperate childhood, Michael Jordan enjoyed his time at school. He did his first years of schooling at D.C. Virgo Junior High School and later graduated to Lanley High School where he began practicing intensively on his basketball skills. He was accepted in the University of North Carolina through a basketball scholarship. At the university, Michael took on the challenge of driving his teammates to a level of performance that they might never have achieved on their own. He scored the winning basket in the National Collegiate Athletic Association championship game in 1982. A sportswriter describes ‘the relentlessness with which Michael Jordan prodded and cajoled the other players in leading them to championship season after championship season† (Lazenby 1996:37). The glorious moments achieved by Michael Jordan were soon vaporised by a permanent shadow. In 1993, an agonising incident shattered Jordan†s excitement after winning his third championship. Moments after the game, Michael†s father, James Jordan, was brutally murdered by two ruthless teenagers. This was a severe tragedy in Michael†s life; his father was gone. For this reason, Michael decided to retire from Basketball and play Baseball in memory of his father. This was because James Jordan adored Baseball (Jordan 1998:112). He signed a minor league contract with the Chicago White Sox, but was unsuccessful (Encarta 1999). Hence Jordan returned to his favorable professional sport of basketball. Allison exclaims ‘at a press conference, Michael only said two words, I†m back!† (Samuels 1999). The ball started to roll again. But the anxiety of the spectators only lasted till the end of 1997. By far, the Chicago Bulls had been hit the hardest with the news of Jordan†s retirement. The breakup arose when the management refused to pay Phil Jackson, coach of the Chicago Bulls, what he deserved after bringing six NBA championships to the Bulls. When Jackson abandoned the team, Jordan refused to play for a new coach. After Jordan officially announced his retirement, basketball great, Scottie Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets. Only four players of the previous year†s team still remained on the Chicago Bulls. Stein considers ‘many have made the prediction that the bulls will lose mare games in this shortened season than they did all last year† (Stein 1999). The die-hard Chicago Bulls fans will always hold a special place in their heart for Michael Jordan. They will tell their sons and daughters about him, they will get out the old VHS tapes of games that they have recorded and they will pass along basketball cards that will be worth hundreds of dollars. Those of us who have seen him play will always remember him and what he has done for the game of basketball. For those who haven†t will have to settle for the endless highlight reels and Nike commercials to keep his memory alive.

Discussion 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion 7 - Essay Example A number of books and movies have been written and made on how the war affected the lives of people as well as modern societies around the world. The major power countries lost millions of soldiers; these brave men fought hard and sacrificed their lives ultimately. However, the war also affected civilians and people from everyday walks of life that had no hand in it. The face of politics, economies around the world, as well as public opinion underwent a strong change because of the First World War. Germany was at large made to pay for the reparation of the damages that it had caused all around the globe, and most other countries tried to adopt a more liberal path of government in order to serve the people better and establish democracies. There was widespread inflation all around as people were forced to pay high sums of money for the basic necessities of life. Industrialization had not yet taken a strong hold over many countries, however, it began to, because people were in vast nee d of jobs. Pay cuts were rampant as more and more people began to die early and were not able to afford food for their families. The use of human labour also declined a great deal as more and more machines came into use. The effect of the War on civilians thus was such that it had a long term impact on their lives. Entire families were affected in a bad way due to the down sloped economy.

Cardiac Exercise Prescription, Referral & Rehabilitation case study Essay

Cardiac Exercise Prescription, Referral & Rehabilitation case study - Essay Example The pain typically lasts for 5 to 10 minutes and subsides with rest. The pain is non-radiating and is not associated with other symptoms like nausea, vomiting, cough, breathlessness, palpitations, syncopal attacks, expectoration, edema or fever. The patient also complains of easy fatiguibility since 15 days. Past Medical History (Non-cardiac): He has hypertension since 10 years and is on antihypertensives and aspirin. He has high blood cholesterol levels which has reduced after initiation of cholesterol lowering agents. Peter suffered from major illness at 20 years of age when more than half his lung was damaged due to pneumonia. He underwent 2 hernia operations, one for right inguinal hernia 10 years ago and a repeat surgery for the same hernia 6 years ago. His stay in the hospital during that period was uneventful. Peter does not have diabetes mellitus. There are no known allergies identified in him. Cardiac History: The patient is a known case of myocardial ischemia, diagnosed 4 y ears ago when he was treated with placement of stents. 17 months ago he suffered from myocardial ischemia. Currently, he is admitted for angina due to ischemic heart disease. Ischemic heart disease or IHD or coronary heart disease is a condition in which there is oxygen deprivation to the muscles of the heart as a result of decreased blood flow and perfusion and is accompanied by inadequate removal of the products of metabolism (Zevitz, 2006). This is the most common form of heart disease and a leading cause of premature death in the developed countries (Zevitz, 2006). The hallmark feature of this condition is imbalance between the supply and demand of oxygen of the myocardium which can occur either due to increased myocardial oxygen demand or decreased myocardial oxygen supply or both. Ischemia to the myocardium results from disease in the coronary arteries. The disease is most often due to formation of atheroma and its consequences like thrombosis. Of all the arteries in the body, coronary arteries are at increased risk of developing atheroma (Maseri et al, 1992). Personal history: As a lorry driver, Peter used to enjoy eating fatty food, especially take away Chinese foods. The patient has regular diet and sleep. His bowel and bladder habits are regular. The patient was a smoker and used to smoke about 60 cigarettes a day. 3 years ago, the number came down to 10 per day. He has given up smoking now for the past one month. He does not take alcohol. He is not addicted to illicit drugs. He leads an active life and walks about half an hour a day for 5-6 days a week, of which atleast 10 minutes is brisk walking. His hobbies are racing and gardening. Family history: Both his parents were diabetic and hypertensive. However, there is no family history of heart disease. Peter is married and has one daughter and five sons, who are source of some stress to him. Education: Peter did not undergo proper schooling. He studied in a technical school for 3 years. He started w orking as a lorry driver since the age of 15. He did not receive any education about cardiac disease. Patient mentioned that if he received any such education earlier, he would have cut down on smoking. Risk Factor Profile: Modifiable risk factors: 1.

Infrastructure Development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Infrastructure Development - Assignment Example The flow, pressure, velocity and other properties remains unchanged in laminar flow. Laminar flow taking place over a horizontal surface may actually be taken to consist of laminae which are parallel to one another. The fluid that is in contact with the horizontal surface is definitely stationary, but the other layers are constantly sliding over each other. When a gas or liquid flows through a path or point, there are different parameters related to the fluid flow, thus certain parameters may vary while others may be relatively constant. The two common features of fluid flow are fluid particles pressure, velocity and element of the fluid in regard to the point that is being considered. Fluid flow can therefore be classified in various patterns that are based on flow parameters variation in relation to time and distance. By its definition, for a uniform flow to occur, the cross-sectional area should basically be constant. A good example is liquid flowing thorough a pipe of constant diameter. On the other hand, flow of a liquid through a pipeline having variable diameter would therefore be called non-uniform. In fluid mechanics, Reynold’s Number refers to a dimensionless number that is very important in designing a model of system in which the viscosity effect is very critical as far as controlling the fluid pattern flow or velocities are concerned. It is symbolized as NRe, and is also referred to as Damkà ¶hler number V (DaV). It has been noted that pressure and velocity as well as other fluid flow properties can time functions. If a fluid flow is in such a way that the properties at all points of flow are not dependent on time, it is then referred to as a steady flow. Speaking in mathematical terms, non-steady or unsteady flows are the flow properties are not dependent on time. The formulae are derived from the related mathematical equation when water is permitted to flow in

Jesus true prayer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Jesus true prayer - Assignment Example Aside from praying the â€Å"Our Father†, one also follows Jesus’ advice in Matthew 6.6 which states that â€Å"pray to thy Father which is in secret; and thy Father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly† (Matthew 6, n.d., p. 1). One prays using what one intends to relay to the Father through own words and in a parallel way that a child seeks to communicate to one’s own biological father. One could improve one’s prayer life through observing and practicing Jesus’ advice and recommendation for the true prayer by first acknowledging adoration to God, the Father and the provider and Omnipotent God, who governs one’s path and life. One should recognize that prayer assists in overcoming daily challenges and exemplifies communicating to God in terms of appreciating receiving blessings and graces and acknowledging that we need protection from harm. Also, the message of forgiveness must be ingrained in our daily life as the ethics of reciprocity must be of primary importance as a secret to a happy and peaceful

Tuition assistance in the work place and its effects on retention Coursework - 1

Tuition assistance in the work place and its effects on retention - Coursework Example ), most organizations focus on employees’ growth that takes diverse forms of education including training initiatives other than leadership training; cross-functional training; management training; and development training. However, the survey revealed that three of the least used employee development programs were job sharing, official professional mentoring programs, and job alternations. Tuition assistance programs are said to have numerous benefits like tuition satisfaction, improvement of working environment, effective recruitment tools, reduced turnover and increased loyalty to the firm one is working. According to Jacobs (2011), employees’ turnover implies the rate of employees entering and leaving a firm within the time span of one year. In the wake of a recovering economy after the 2008 economic recession, employers are experiencing high employee turnover rates. These turnover issues are beyond what employers could have dealt with in the past when recession forced most of them into downsizing and restructuring. In this regard, turnover rates experienced by most employers currently are way above what most employers consistently deal with. For now, most employers hope that the current employees’ turnover outburst is a onetime issue that will go away with the turning around of the economy. Based on natural wisdom, no turnover rate is perfect especially since good turnover for one firm could be bad for another. In addition, it is hard to define bad turnover and good turnover since different firms in different industries have their own rates. Turnover could vary within industries and depend on geography. In this case, turnover rates are just an abstract number whose value evaluated relative to other facts and numbers like unemployment rates, and local and national politics amongst other. The crucial aspect that employers need to understand in evaluating turnover is the impact arising from both internal and external factors and develops the best way to

Diversion Program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Diversion Program - Essay Example Diversion program in the criminal justice system is a program run by a police department, court, a district attorney's office, or outside agency designed to enable offenders of criminal law to avoid criminal charges and a criminal record. In October 2007, World Sport Chicago with the cooperation of USA Boxing, Chicago Park District and Police Athlete league of Illinois, launched a program "Gloves not Guns" to encourage school children to pick up boxing gloves and not guns to deal with aggression. The purpose of the "gloves not guns" program is to save youth from offenses and street crimes. So they chose boxing as a tool by which students can take out all their anger and aggression in the ring. They can put off their stress in a legal way rather than indulging themselves in any unwanted acts. "Most importantly, this program will provide our kids with positive alternatives and keep them off the streets and away from the dangers of gangs, guns and drugs. By motivating young people to spend their spare time in the gym, rather than on the streets, we'll be using sports to change people's lives for the better." If we look at this program from the perspective of social process theories, we observe that all the factors of social learning theory, social control theory and social reaction theory are associat

Gun related crime in the U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gun related crime in the U.S - Essay Example One of the main reasons for failure of regulation is the attitude of federal government towards guns distribution; it pays virtually no attention to the design, manufacture, or marketing of guns. The two agencies with potential jurisdiction over these matters, the BATF and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) currently lack the authority to address them. This lack of federal supervision of the gun industry allows several dangerous conditions to persist since 1983. (Jacobs, 2002, p. 19) Now, the question arises whether or not gun regulation can control violence in the U.S History (1970 and 1980) reveals that gun control regulation has never been helpful in crime reduction. This is evident from regression analysis, state data, and experimenting social and economic variables, which Murray (1975) concludes, "gun control laws have no significant effect on rates of violence beyond what can be attributed to background social conditions". In addition, he observes that "controlling for basic social factors, the data show that gun laws have no significant effect on access to firearms and differing rates of access to handguns had no significant effect on violent acts" (Murray 1975). According to Gorman & Kopel (2000) the gun control regulation has reduced the number of legal firearms in the ... If we analyze UK historical significance of gun regulation, it is evident that England and Wales had lower rates of robbery and burglary than the United States (in 1981)". (Gorman & Kopel, 2000) "Unfortunately, the British government's single-minded devotion to eliminating defensive arms has made life more dangerous for British citizens. In the United States, youth is more afraid of running into an armed homeowner than the police. As a result, the hot burglary rate today and the rate of crimes that occur when the householder is home is 13 percent in the United States and about 50 percent in England and Wales". (Gorman & Kopel, 2000) That means crime in UK is more vulnerable towards violence than in U.S. According to a review of firearm statistics in Canada, Australia has by far adopted the best policy in combating gun violence and control and has a solution to this problem. "Even though an estimated one in five Australian households contained a gun before the 1996 legislation, Australia has always had relatively few problems with firearms when compared with other industrialized nations. According to a 1995 report done for the Canadian Department of Justice, Australian homicide rates were very low by worldwide standards, and only 18 Australians died in accidents with firearms in 1993". (Aus, 2006a) This might be the result of the "Australian Government's approach to firearm regulation which seeks to achieve a balance between allowing those with a genuine need to possess and use firearms and providing a safe and secure environment for the broader community. In particular, the Australian Government is supportive of the legitimate use of firearms by

Postcolonial Novel Essay Example for Free

Postcolonial Novel Essay To fully understand Chinua Achebe’s book Things Fall Apart, one must not fall for the idea that there is one main purpose for the novel. Simply stated the story is much too rich and complex for that. The themes of Okonkwo’s life, and the Ibo culture, are twofold: it is the relation of the conflict between an individual and society, and also the description of the conflict between the larger forces of cultures clashing. Support for this dual thesis is overwhelming. To begin with the text itself demands that interpretation. Things Fall Apart clearly begins with a focus directly aimed upon the main character of Okonkwo. It is going to revolve around his life. However, at the very same time, the protagonist is not mentioned even one time early on without being connected simultaneously with thoughts of both his home village and the larger culture of the Ibo people. This cannot be ignored. One could argue that rather than being a larger purpose book Things Fall Apart is just a novel of the life and growth of one man, but this is rather silly and simple. The title of the book puts one right on the path to refuting this, giving context to a larger meaning. It is clearly encouraging one to look at larger ‘things’ as opposed to a person. This is coupled with the basis for the title itself, quoted on the flyleaf: The Yeats’ poem The Second Coming: Turning and turning in a widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the center cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world. (Quoted in Things Fall Apart). Therefore given the context of a large chaotic world it would be more than naive to assume a different interpretation, that of a more concentrated work based upon an individual. To best prove the ambivalent statement of purpose about Achebe’s novel it is vital to review critical and popular commentary. This book has struck a highly resonant chord with readers in the fifty years since its first publication. It unabashedly describes an African culture in such a way that the power of the society is shown, and the power of the African individual is also demonstrated. Naturally, all minority groups and oppressed people can find inspiration within the pages. As a result, as may be expected, strong opinions have been catalogued as analysis over time. This paper reviews two such supports for each purpose stated in the thesis. The first part deals with the conflict between individuals and society. The primary source naturally is the book itself. Briefly paraphrased Okonkwo is a well known warrior. He is extremely self centered and important at the beginning of the novel. This has as its roots a severe cynicism regarding the life and experiences of his father Unoka. In a world where the society of Ibo is stronger than the individuals, this lack of respect seeps into Okonkwo’s world. The foible is too much and eventually pits him at odds with his society. Charles H. Rowell held a conversation regarding this aspect of Things Fall Apart with the author himself. What resulted was a fine understanding and awareness of this thesis through the words of Achebe. One example of his thought process and the workings of the story of Okonkwo on a personal level is this answer. â€Å"People are expecting from literature serious comment on their lives. They are not expecting frivolity† (250). Or as Rowell comments, the creation of Achebe’s stories such as Okonkwo’s are not made just to entertain. They are to connect with readers about their own experiences and then instruct them from there. Rowell’s interview shows an awareness of the importance of the social story. His questions aim to reveal this oft overlooked aspect of writings such as Things Fall Apart. It is tempting, he relates to merely dismiss (if this is even fair wording) the book as commenting only on the larger theme of Ibo society and what happens when an established social realm is invaded by foreigners. Instead he and Achebe through the discussion point to the power of a narrative surrounding the conflict that one can have on a smaller, more concentrated level: the conflict that occurs when one runs counter to their own society’s expectations. When Okonkwo becomes too heavily involved on a personal level with the sacrifice of the neighboring Mbaino culture, he runs into direct opposition to the world directly around him. That and his character traits create early conflict and show to the world a story based upon that – an important revelation to readers across the spectrum that may find themselves sometimes in this predicament. The biography of Achebe by Ezenwa-Ohaeto reveals this purpose to be true as well. And this comes from a treatment of just where Achebe was in his own personal life and the moods and hopes that he possessed while writing the book. He was working as a controller at the time in Eastern Region when he first began attempting to introduce Things Fall Apart to the publishing world. At this time, he ran into the sort of direct conflict with his own society, ironically, that he would develop in the story of Okonkwo. There was great objection to a book about Africans by Africans at the time. The 1950s were not exactly a compassionate moment for the words of Africans. Independence was on the horizon for many countries, but there was also a great deal of fear. This desire of many to not rock the boat, so to speak, put those who would speak out in a path of intersection with their own society (65). This only encouraged Achebe to produce a vision of that for his protagonist. There must be the strong character trait in one that wishes to change his social culture for the better, he reflects in his novel. The experience of Okonkwo is the experience of an individual in conflict with his society and the results that may come, unexpected or not, from that. The second section concerns itself with the conflict inherent when two cultures clash. This is the broader perspective, necessarily, compared to the experience of the individual. This also is the more basic and popular understanding of the novel. It is very easy to see all of the reasons why. Again, a look at the primary source of the novel is the starting point for any discussion. Commentary on the book will never quite serve the reader as well as the book itself. And what does it indicate? Most of the second section of the story is examining what happened to the Ibo people and their culture when the white culture insidiously worked their way into it. It broke the home culture into pieces. Things did, indeed fall apart. Consider this quote directly from the book: If we fight the stranger we shall hit our brothers and perhaps shed the book of a clansman. But we must do it. Our fathers never dreamed of such a thing, they never killed their brothers. But a white man never came to them. So we must do what our fathers would never have done. (Achebe 203). There is no better analysis of this second theme of Achebe’s work. Two cultures clash. Chaos results. And yet that is only the superficial layer of the problem, as this quote clearly shows. The problem that occurs when cultures come into contact and then conflict with each other is the assimilation effect. There will always be faction that fall prey to the invaders and their attractive ideas. Sometimes that is enough for them to forget the values of their peoples. This conflict then with their own home society can cause open resentment and actual warfare. Then the culture falls into shambles even worse as shared societal values are discarded. In the end there are not only two social cultures left: the home and the invaders. There are three: the home culture, the invaders, and the home culture that is infected by the invaders. None of them are true allies and only further conflict can be expected. Chapter three of John Ball’s book Satire and the Postcolonial Novel (79-114) examines this issue and the breakdown that results from it. He takes the even larger view that is used often as well when looking at the clashing of the Ibo with the whites that have come into their world. He reviews this setting of Things Fall Apart to be a criticism and revelation of the greater issues of colonialism in Africa (and other parts of the world, for that matter) as seen through one African author’s eyes. Rather than look too thoroughly at the early parts of the novel, he focuses rather on the part of the book in which the two cultures come into contact. This is the point of departure for this second theme. It is accurate to say that most of the pages from that spot and onward deal with this cultural clashing issue. I think, too, that it is accurate that this does work as a satire. That is to say that I fully believe that Achebe is trying to achieve this effect. Only too well did he personally understand what happens when two completely variant cultures meet. His hope and the hope of the Africans around him was that if treated peacefully, the foreign culture would come in and only benefit them, but he also saw the harsher side of the realities. This is how Things Fall Apart deals with the situation. Ball is not the only one who could see this expression in the novel and in other works by Achebe. It is a strong defense of the idea that one of the two main themes of the book is that of what happens when two cultures clash. A final proof would use is Isidore Okpewho’s commentary on Achebe in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. She sees too this problem with assimilation, cultural conflict and resultant expectations. These are all the values and stories of Things Fall Apart. Seen from the outside she has several comments and thoughts about how these topics are addressed by connecting them to the outside world at the time of the writing. She describes the authorship of this book as being a â€Å"succession of forces controlling his [Achebe’s] development as a writer† (5). This is a great assessment. It sets the stage for understanding the direction of his landmark work Things Fall Apart. It is indeed this stage that the book concerns itself with. There is a succession of forces, to use Okpewho’s words, that are acting upon the Ibo culture. These control the development of the world of that African region and create mass conflict between the two cultures. The assimilation effects, she continues, were strongest in the Ibo part of the world. This is accurately reflected, too, in the sinister ways in which the foreigners crept in with their influences. That is the warning cry of Okonkwo with the text. He sees that the policy of indirect rule is only designed to place one group of people into opposition with another group of their own people. This splinters and fragments the strength of the initial cultures. It created enemies where there weren’t any other, as reflected in the quote concerning the killing of brethren, used above. This was the white way. It is no surprise then, that this theme would find its way so strongly into Things Fall Apart. The topic is addressed as a cautionary tale. Achebe had already seen this happen in his own world. He saw the sad results. He knew how destructive the penetration of home cultures could be. All of these can be found in Part Three of the book. â€Å"It is already too late,† said Obierika sadly. â€Å"Our own men and our sons have joined the ranks of the stranger. They have joined his religion and they help to uphold his government† (176). It is the despondent tone of the theme describing the clash of cultures. All of the above commentary from several sources, combined with a close and analytical reading of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart reveals the thesis to be strongly supported. Of the novel’s purpose, two things then are true: it aim to relate an expression of conflict between an individual and society, while concurrently exploring the description of conflicts resulting from the larger forces of cultures clashing. References Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. Print. Ball, John C. Satire the Postcolonial Novel: V. S. Naipaul, Chinua Achebe, Salman Rushdie. New York: Routledge, 2003. 79-114. Print. Ohaeto, Ezenwa. Chinua Achebe: A Biography. Oxford: James Currey, 1997. Print. Okpewho, Isidore, Ed. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. Oxford: UP, 2003. Print. Rowell, Charles H. â€Å"An Interview with Chinua Achebe. † Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. Ed. Isidore Okpewho. Oxford: UP, 2003. 249-272. Print. Conversations with Chinua Achebe. Ed. Bernth Lindfors. Jackson, MS: UP, 1997. Print.

The Indian Healthcare Sector Erp Systems Information Technology Essay

The Indian Healthcare Sector Erp Systems Information Technology Essay The Indian Healthcare sector is rapidly expanding in terms of revenue and employment with its total value estimated about $34 billion. Some of the reasons for the same are: Growing population and economy The biggest driver of the expansion of the healthcare sector in India is its booming population, which is currently estimated about 1.1 billion. (Appendix-Figure1) Rising middle class Due to the rise in the average income, as of now, around 50 million Indians can afford to use advanced healthcare services and medicines. Increase in the spread of disease One of the significant driving factors for the growth of Indias healthcare sector is the rise and spread of various diseases, infectious and chronic degenerative in nature. 1.2 ERP need in Heath Care Industry ERP has got a huge scope of implementation in the healthcare industry since more and more hospitals are coming up and the customers are now looking for better professionalism and improved and efficient healthcare services. Key healthcare organization objectives: The specific healthcare industry objectives include: Improved productivity and efficient workflow with proper information at various care points. Integrating various systems across individual departments in a hospital and also across hospitals under the same management. Performing core hospital activities and increasing customer service to enhance Hospital Image. Implementation of SAP ERP in Wockhardt About Wockhardt Wockhardt is one of the major players in the Indian sector for Healthcare services. Besides providing the healthcare services via its chain of hospitals, Wockhardt also manufactures and markets various formulations, nutrition products, biopharmaceuticals, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and vaccines. 2.2 Summary Name of the Organization : Wockhardt Limited Head Office Location : Mumbai, India Services : Healthcare No. of Employees : 9,000 Revenue of the Firm : Rs 26 Billion Implementation partner : IBM India 2.3 Pre-ERP Environment in Wockhardt Wockhardt had a non-integrated, non-SAP IT system The IT hardware used were of IBM P-Series IBM AIX was the IT Operating System in use prior to ERP implementation Oracle 10g database at Wockhardt Some of the challenges faced by Wockhardt prior to ERP implementation are as follows: Inability to handle the business growth due to poor existing technology Integration and formal communication among the existing systems were low. High cost dependency on independent product vendors adding to maintenance costs. Difficulty in managing and controlling disparate data. Dependency on multiple small packages and SMEs for day to day operations. Overall service levels and patient satisfaction levels were low. 2.4 Choosing an ERP vendor Some of the issues that were considered while choosing a vendor were: Data accuracy Hospitals have to supply all the essential information to the vendor at the time of making the proposals. This will help him to easily configure the required software. The mistake of not disclosing information Many hospitals do the mistake of not disclosing crucial information at this juncture. They are reluctant to disclose confidential information. Demonstrations The hospital will be able to rate the vendors suitability more so during practical demonstrations. His level of competencies and technicalities will be revealed to the company. The reason why SAP solution was chosen as the ERP vendor was: Its a robust, integrated solution with multiple customized functions and features Its positioned for future growth with global credibility Its a well defined reliable partner with assured support It strategically aligns itself with the Wockhardts business requirements 2.5 Objectives of SAP implementation The companys vision to integrate and standardize global processes was a major reason for introducing SAP solutions. Wockhardt was looking for an ERP solution that would: Establish a single, integrated ERP solution. Improve visibility and standardize the current business processes across the organization. Provide a platform for free flow of information and a central data repository. Introduce best practices of Life Science Industry for all locations. Provide a common technology platform with capabilities of analyzing business data. Meet the global business requirements, with simultaneously adhering to the country specific necessities. 2.6 SAP ® Solutions Services used in Wockhardt SAP ® ERP SAP ® Business Information Ware house SAP NetWeaver, ® SAP NetWeaver ® Portal, SAP ® Solution Manager, a tool found in the SAP NetWeaver ® platform 2.7 SAP Implementation Highlights Time-frame of implementation : 8 months (From May 2005) Top Managements support with highly dedicated team Highly successful implementation with a big bang approach in India Subsequent rollouts to subsidiaries in Europe US by the Wockhardt In-house team The average 3 year cost of a SAP deployment is shown in Appendix -Figure2. The various stages for the same were: Project Planning Business Process Study Installation Training Business Requirement mapping Configuration Modifications Data Conversion Documentation Testing Go-Live Post production support 2.8 SAP R/3 Architecture in Wockhardt SAP R/3 works on Three Tier Architecture comprising of the database, application and presentation layer. (Appendix Figure3) The Database server is solely responsible for Wockhardts data storage. The Application server interacts with the other two servers to manage user requests. The User terminal is responsible for data creation, modification and retrieval. 2.9 Benefits of SAP to Wockhardt The benefits that Wockhardt got on implementing SAP ERP were: Real-time access to higher quality information More structured data forming a basis for informed strategic and operational decisions A consolidated, single view of the business with efficient working practices due to standardized and integrated business processes Improved inventory management with better coordination of work across multiple locations Faster decision-making and improved Planning and customer service, efficiency, enhanced Visibility 2.10 Wockhardts future plans with SAP Wockhardts future plans with SAP include: SAP ® Customer Relationship Management (SAP CRM) SAP ® Supplier Chain Management (SAP SCM) SAP ® Advanced Planning Optimization component (APO) SAP NetWeaver ® component for integration. With the SAP CRM module, Wockhardt can: Implement one, multichannel contact center to control and coordinate the interactions between patients and Wockhardt. Link the contact center directly to the appointment system so a patient can make, change, cancel, or inquire about appointments. Improve communication with patients by using demand management software to remind patients of appointments, manage waiting lists, and fill late cancellations The Vendors Perspective About SAP and IBM IBM was finalized as the implementation partner for starting the SAP ERP implementation in May of 2005. The implementation team took around eight months to complete the project. With vendors like SAP and implementation partners like IBM, it has definitely resulted in lowering the pressure on healthcare organizations like Wockhardt. 3.1.1 SAP SAP is the market leader in ERP solutions. Since its foundation in 1972, SAP (Systems, Applications and Products in Data processing) have helped companies of all sizes and industries run better. Currently SAP departments are located in greater than 50 nations and serving 110,000  customers worldwide. SAP for Healthcare industry helps the firms like Wockhardt in integrating their healthcare processes by providing an end-to-end portfolio of solutions. IBM IBM has world class reliable, scalable and responsive business solutions and on collaboration with SAP, both will help the firms in various industries like healthcare by providing quality, simple and customised solutions with high returns. IBM and SAP are committed to delivering affordable end-to-end solutions scaled to meet the needs of SMBs. The combined solutions of IBM and SAP enable the organizations to speed up their business operations in order to comply with the dynamic changes in the marketplace. Challenges faced by IBM, SAP for ERP implementation The major challenges faced by SAP and IBM during Wockhardts ERP implementations are as follows: To cope up with the dynamic and ever-changing business processes and consumer needs To be in-line with the regulatory guidelines To assist the hospital service with regular up gradation . Integration with Legacy Systems Integration of ERP Modules of different vendors or versions and E-Business Applications like SCM, CRM, KM. 4. ERP modules used at Wockhardt Some of the important SAP ERP modules used by Wockhardt are mentioned below: Materials Management (MM) Customer Service (CS) Quality Management (QM) Sales Distribution (SD) Human Resources (HR) Production Planning (PP) Financial Management (FM) Product Life Cycle Management (PLM) The material management module (Appendix- Figure4) comprises of the features mentioned below: Stock Reconciliation- At warehouse / item(s) level Alerts and notifications on Shelf Life Storage Differentiations for Quarantine / Approved / Rejected items. Item tracking based on Expiry dates and Serial No. / Lot numbers Bar code interface integration Patient Administration: This module handles the front office, back office and nursing station of Wockhardt. Some of the modules of front office are handling the appointments, reservations, admission and discharge of patient along with the deposits, refunds of cashier department. The back office includes the maintenance, in-patient billing and scheduling of the Wockhardts back office. Besides this, SAP ERP integrates the administrative and clinical processes of the nursing station. (Appendix Figure5) Clinical Management The clinical management of the SAP package in Wockhardt includes: Laboratory- Lab scheduling, records, kit management, etc. Operation theatre- Theatre scheduling, maintenance, medical equipments usage, etc. Medical records Visit details of Outpatient and In-Patients, etc. Blood bank Donor registration list, Blood stock, etc. (Appendix Figure6) Resource Management The resource management of the Wockhardt SAP module includes: Pharmacy In and out-patient pharmacy, central pharmacy, etc. General stores Purchase orders, material receipts, inventory control, etc. Ambulatory Ambulance and personnel scheduling. Medical equipment management Equipment and AMC details, stock management, etc. (Appendix Figure7) Financial Management The financial management module includes functionalities like maintaining the: Accounts payable Accounts receivable General ledger Doctors accounting Payroll Care contracts Federations grants, etc. (Appendix Figure8) 5. Conclusion and Findings The Indian healthcare sector can be considered to be as a glass half empty or as a glass half full. This is so because, even though the healthcare sector has improved significantly over the years but still the challenges it is facing are significant. Improvisation needs to be done by developing the existing physical and IT infrastructure in order to provide quality healthcare services. The need of the hour is to perform core hospital activities and increase the quality of customer service by integrating its various components and avoid data redundancy. Industries look for ERP solution that can provide a common technology platform with capabilities of analyzing business data. They expect to meet the global business requirements, with simultaneously adhering to the country specific necessities. Because of the availability of a single unified platform for data sharing and standardization of the various healthcare business processes, the redundancy of data entry has minimized significantly and has resulted in saving valuable administrative time. The SAP ERP implementation has assisted the Wockhardt staff in successfully updating, recovering and managing the data in real-time. Also, reports can now be produced quickly, thus minimizing the logistical headaches. The most striking benefit of implementing SAP ERP in Wockhardt has been the significant visibility in its service operations which has lead to improved planning and coordination across Wockhardt. Hence sooner or later, most of the companies need to change their traditional practices and have an advanced technology supported with state of the art IT infrastructure to support its core business activities and integrate them efficiently across the organization. Appendix Figure 1 Indian economy growth rate Figure 2 3 year cost of a SAP deployment Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Patient Administration Figure 6 Clinical Management Figure 7 Resource Management Figure 8 Financial Management

The Pursuit of Happiness - Four Revolutionary Words, by Andrew Sullivan

"It's a small phrase when you think about it: "the pursuit of happiness." It's somewhat over-shadowed in the Declaration of Independence by the weightier notions of "life" and "liberty." In today's mass culture, it even comes close to being banal. Who, after all, doesn't want to pursue happiness? But in its own day, the statement was perhaps the most radical political statement ever delivered. And when we try and fathom why it is that the United States still elicits such extreme hatred in some parts of the world, this phrase is as good a place to start as any." "What power four little words still have. And what carnage they must still endure to survive. " Andrew Sullivan's article, "The Pursuit of Happiness - Four Revolutionary Words", may have been the best or most intriguing story we have read thus far. But you didn't ask us to summarize it, besides how could we do that in only two pages. Instead you asked us to historicize this powerful piece, which yet is still a hard task to complete. In the opening line the Declaration of independence and its meaning of life and Liberty are mentioned. The Declaration came about on July 4, 1776, which recorded the proclamation of the 2nd American Continental Congress asserting the independence of the colonies from Great Britain (Webster's Dictionary). Sullivan immediately follows into references of the chaotic conditions of the 18th century. One example is that there were rumors and belief of witches; inurn innocent people were being burned at the stake, (where were their "certain unalienable Rights" then). As Sullivan states countries were being torn apart because of imperfection (I thought tha t "That all men are created equal, and, that they are endowed by their Creator )(God). Add... ... are watching the freedom that they feel we have as expressed though American television and businesses. A fear of total anarchy has arisen in the hearts of their leaders, and many are holding on for dear life to their old customs and beliefs of control, while others such as China and Russia are hesitantly going with the flow. Sullivan is unsure of the effect this Pursuit of Happiness will have on the future; can any of us predict, we only know the past and the present. "As I write I have no idea as to the conclusion of this new drama in world history except that it will have ramifications as large and as lasting as the Cold War." Works Cited ANDREW SULLIVAN. THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS - Four Revolutionary Words. Forbes ASAP, "The Big Issue," November 2001. Web. 29 June 2015. http://homepage.eircom.net/~odyssey/Politics/Sullivan/Pursuit%20of%20Happiness.html The Pursuit of Happiness - Four Revolutionary Words, by Andrew Sullivan "It's a small phrase when you think about it: "the pursuit of happiness." It's somewhat over-shadowed in the Declaration of Independence by the weightier notions of "life" and "liberty." In today's mass culture, it even comes close to being banal. Who, after all, doesn't want to pursue happiness? But in its own day, the statement was perhaps the most radical political statement ever delivered. And when we try and fathom why it is that the United States still elicits such extreme hatred in some parts of the world, this phrase is as good a place to start as any." "What power four little words still have. And what carnage they must still endure to survive. " Andrew Sullivan's article, "The Pursuit of Happiness - Four Revolutionary Words", may have been the best or most intriguing story we have read thus far. But you didn't ask us to summarize it, besides how could we do that in only two pages. Instead you asked us to historicize this powerful piece, which yet is still a hard task to complete. In the opening line the Declaration of independence and its meaning of life and Liberty are mentioned. The Declaration came about on July 4, 1776, which recorded the proclamation of the 2nd American Continental Congress asserting the independence of the colonies from Great Britain (Webster's Dictionary). Sullivan immediately follows into references of the chaotic conditions of the 18th century. One example is that there were rumors and belief of witches; inurn innocent people were being burned at the stake, (where were their "certain unalienable Rights" then). As Sullivan states countries were being torn apart because of imperfection (I thought tha t "That all men are created equal, and, that they are endowed by their Creator )(God). Add... ... are watching the freedom that they feel we have as expressed though American television and businesses. A fear of total anarchy has arisen in the hearts of their leaders, and many are holding on for dear life to their old customs and beliefs of control, while others such as China and Russia are hesitantly going with the flow. Sullivan is unsure of the effect this Pursuit of Happiness will have on the future; can any of us predict, we only know the past and the present. "As I write I have no idea as to the conclusion of this new drama in world history except that it will have ramifications as large and as lasting as the Cold War." Works Cited ANDREW SULLIVAN. THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS - Four Revolutionary Words. Forbes ASAP, "The Big Issue," November 2001. Web. 29 June 2015. http://homepage.eircom.net/~odyssey/Politics/Sullivan/Pursuit%20of%20Happiness.html

Modern Music Composition :: essays research papers fc

Modern Music Composition Composition has been an ever-changing entity in our society. Music composition is also a very alternating subject of study. You have to keep up to date when you wish to compose a piece of music. This is strictly due to the progression of music in this day in age. If you fail to study, the music you are writing may, very well, upset the music community with old or potentially outdated material. The only way to stay up to date with composition is to listen to a lot of classical music, which seems to be, without a doubt, the best music to listen to. If you have not done your research on such music, you may find yourself running out of ideas for further compositions. Music composition is the subject of this essay. Music, through the years, has changed in many ways. The musical "attitude" is determined through the overall feelings of the composer at the time, at which he or she wrote it. The "attitude" sets the overall feeling of the piece of music. If you fail to pass the feelings that you felt while you wrote the piece of music, you fail in the overall goal of the piece of music. Music composition is a very modern thing these days. It has grown because of the advanced availability of better technology. Technology, which is changing every day, has opened up new and more innovative doors. Included with the advanced technology that has brought music to life, there has also been a steady increase of musicians. This is in direct proportion with the growing number of music educators. Music, by means of instruments, has been played for thousands of years. Music composition involves three major key-points. These key-points are direction, general-knowledge, and general-insight. Through the course of this essay, you will learn what each of these three points is and the prevalent pre-requisitions required of persons to have these three abilities. Direction, being the first of the three points, gives you the sense of the music. Without direction, you would not have the urge to write the piece of music. Direction is what composers use to give the general emotion that is supposed to be perceived by the ending audience. The direction requires only one thing. That is emotion. Emotion is what a piece of music is made for. Without emotion, the piece would probably be so uninteresting that the audience would not want to listen to it. The emotion is very hard to pass on to the audience, strictly because it is what you feel.

Business Ethics †Discrimination Essay

Discrimination is defined as distinguishing something from something else (i. e. don’t hire him because he has no experience). Unjustified discrimination is distinguishing something from something else on a basis that is not justified (i. e. don’t hire him because he is black). The term discrimination commonly replaces the term unjustified discrimination in business, philosophy, psychology and day-to-day community life. In a just and fair society, such as we Canadians aspire to, a job applicant’s race, ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age, orientation, mental ability, or physical condition should not disadvantage them in career choices or job competitions. If a short Asian female firefighter can do the job, she should get the job. Conversely she should not expect to receive concessions that are not available to all; that is in effect also discrimination. Unfortunately, discrimination often arises in business in regards to hiring, job placement, wage, and promotion. Affirmative Action Ideally, discrimination should be of no concern at all; everyone should have an equal opportunity to anything. In a perfect world a hiring manager would not have to think thoughts such as, â€Å"They are disabled, they are women, they are aboriginal,† and would only think, â€Å"This person will be perfect for the job because†¦. † Unfortunately this may never completely happen. For example if a person in a wheelchair applies to be a stock person at Costco and another person who is not in a wheelchair applies for the same position the manager will be debating, â€Å"Should I hire the person who cannot walk because I want to be socially responsible? Or should I hire the person who can walk, who will probably do a better job and who I won’t have to make special accommodations for? † Another example is a man and a woman who are applying to be a nurse on the obstetrics ward; they have both just graduated and have exactly the same experience. If only one position is available who is more likely to be hired? Affirmative action programs often come into place to encourage equal opportunity. Affirmative action refers to policies or rograms that take factors such as; age, sex, race, color or religion and give preferential treatment to people that belong to an identifiable disadvantaged group, or outgroup. Cons Reverse discrimination occurs when preferential treatment is given to one person and the other is left out. For example if a woman is hired to work in an oil patch just because she is a woman and man is not hired (perhaps only because of quota requirements), he will experience reverse discrimination. This may in fact v iolate a province’s human rights code. Some would also argue that it is wrong to place at a disadvantage a current day job applicant in order to attempt to compensate for historical wrong treatment of certain categories of job applicants. Merit may not exist if affirmative action is in place. A situation could arise where an applicant may deserve a job more because he or she has more education and more experience than the hired applicant who is disabled, if the hiring was done only in the interest of a representative workplace. May condescend or offend outgroups because the people belonging to that group don’t believe they need preferential treatment in order to succeed. Affirmative action creates a perception that all racial minorities or physically disabled persons have low self image, poor job marketing skills, missed opportunities, and are in need government regulated assistance. Efficiency may be compromised if a company is forced to hirer a proportionally representative workforce. Instead of hiring the best fitting candidate, companies would be forced to seek out a visible minority or a disabled candidate. This simply is not good business practice. A company should be free to hire the best candidate. Morale and workplace cooperation may be negatively impacted by a person being hired because of affirmative action policies which clearly give special considerations not available to all. The outgroup may develop a sense of entitlement that is not supported by the majority of the workers. Affirmative action may cause a widening of the gap (and an affirmation of bigotry) instead of a diverse and inclusive work force. For example, a white man at a steel factory may think that he got his job because he is qualified for it while being angry that the Asian man only got hired because there were no other Asians working in the plant and the hiring manager did not want to be discriminating. Pros Assistance in obtaining a desired job may be necessary for members of an identifiable disadvantaged group, or outgroup, since discrimination may make it difficult to establish a career. For example, men can be excellent nurses, but if a female hiring officer doesn’t understand or embrace the benefits of diversity, the obstetrics ward would have all female nurses. Another example might be a hair dressing trainee who is in a wheelchair; this applicant may have more obstacles to overcome and more convincing to do with a prospective employer. It is not fair, or just, that these applicants would have to be much better that the â€Å"normal† kind of applicant in order to be desirable to the employer. This â€Å"assistance† is given in affirmative action plans such as requiring employers to choose the disadvantaged applicant when all other skills are equal. Affirmative action makes working in different areas more desirable. Ex, Okanagan College has free introductory welding courses for women only. If colleges did not have these affirmative action programs there would probably be less female welders. This creates an incentive for a member of an outgroup to step forward and be part of the creation of workplace diversity. Affirmative action ensures justice for those who have historically been oppressed. Although hopefully not in Canada, there may still be a stigma attached to those whose ancestors were slaves, lower class, or aboriginal and thus seen as lesser that those with good career jobs. Some people may believe that affirmative action is necessary to change the attitudes of society by mandating a diverse work force. Canada cannot ignore the fact that a few generations ago a person with mental challenges or physical disabilities would not have been offered a position if there was a reasonable candidate who was considered â€Å"normal. † Affirmative action envisions a just work place where everyone is normal because the new normal is diverse and inclusive. Affirmative action encourages a representative work force. If 2% of the community’s population is visually impaired, then in a company of 100 employees, there should be a least two people who have some kind of sight impairment. In Canada, 3% of the population is aboriginal; therefore, there should be three members of a First Nation employed at the above company. A disabled person aged 25 to 44 accounts for 8% of the population. Statistically speaking, the above company, if it were in British Columbia, should have 27 employees who are recent immigrants. With roughly 60% of Canada’s population being Caucasian, all the numbers above would create a representative work force. It could be described as a diverse, dynamic, and exciting place to work; but does it exist? By requiring the inclusion of a representative work force affirmative action will in the long term change attitudes and encourage diversity. Thesis Affirmative action programs are still necessary to ensure equal opportunities in the work place and to encourage diversity, which over time will extinguish discrimination and contribute to a just, fair, and tolerant society. History I believe discrimination stems from history. If a young person learned from parents, schools, or media that women are not good trade workers, they will continue this discrimination for generations. This is what happens in all forms of discrimination because discrimination is learned. Discrimination can be reduced in a society with the influence of laws, education, and incentives. Affirmative action mandates exposure, which with encouragement by supportive government and ethical businesses will result in workplace diversity, and that over time will influence the thinking of society as a whole. Further Discussion: Continue Affirmative Action Dimock and Tucker thoroughly discussed their views on affirmative action policies about how such policies cause problems for employment equity in Canada. Dimock and Tucker did not discuss why such policies may still be necessary and did not thoroughly discuss a solution to discrimination. Their conclusion, while pointing out that affirmative action programs have not met intended goals, does not offer concrete solutions other than education. I disagree that the young should be the only target to ensure against discrimination. Youth can be racist, sexist, and exclusive. That’s why our society has a large problem with bullying. If discrimination is a learned trait, then the youth are learning it from above, and that is precisely the target of affirmative action. I believe affirmative action should still be used to some extent in order to encourage diversification. I think a combination of education and the experience of exposure is more useful that a single target group (such as educating the young). If groups (young, school aged, post secondary, and the work force) are created with diverse and representative participants, the likelihood of all groups beginning to like each other because of repeated exposure is much higher then if they remain separated. Well informed members of society who have personal experience with diversity are the least discriminating for several reasons: †¢They have been educated not be discriminating (from classes like this). †¢They have been put together in groups with all different types of people, and †¢They have become comfortable with that diversity. The result is that they have learned to be less discriminating than their peers or previous generation. For example, a white 18 year old’s great grandparents may have been what is now considered racist toward black people. In the grandparent’s time racism, even segregation, was thought of as perfectly normal, and those views were passed down generation to generation. However, through education and exposure racism was slowly extinguished until we have a grade 12 student who welcomes a new immigrant from Zambia. Instead of being completely racist like his great grandparents the 18 year old now only believes the stereotype that all black people like rap music which he hates. The next generation will (hopefully) not even notice that a black person is in the group. If affirmative action continues it will help the top (the existing generation of employers) meet the bottom (the well informed and accepting job applicant) and the result will be a tolerant, inclusive, and diverse work place. The attitudes of the work place will in time influence society as a whole. Conclusion I was lucky enough to learn about discrimination in both psychology and philosophy class in the same week. Although solutions are not offered in this paper, I believe discrimination can be eliminated through education and diversification. If it were normal to have a representative and diverse â€Å"melting pot† of opportunities and experiences, there would be no need to practice discrimination. Diversification is good. It makes a community tolerant and compassionate; it makes a secure and exciting place to live. Including all groups in all employment opportunities will ultimately create a better society – the melting pot that Canada so prides its identity in. Affirmative action plans ensure that the work place will contribute to this pride.

The Effect of Visual and Verbal Information on Attitudes

The Effects of Visual and Verbal Information on Attitudes and Purchase Intentions in Internet Shopping Minjeong Kim, Ph. D. Oregon State University Sharron Lennon, Ph. D. University of Delaware ABSTRACT The present study investigated how different product presentation formats (visual vs. verbal) influence consumer attitudes toward product and purchase intentions in Internet shopping.The overall results from two Web experiments simulating Internet apparel shopping showed that both visual and verbal information had significant effects on affective and cognitive attitudes toward apparel products, but only verbal information had a significant effect on purchase intention. Though the superiority of visual information was predicted based on prior literature, the results of the study supported verbal superiority. This finding provides an important implication for Internet retailers who tend to pay more attention to visual product presentation.Although visual product presentation is also fou nd to be important, detailed product descriptions are critical to positively influence consumer shopping experience in Internet shopping.  © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. The Internet is changing almost every aspect of our daily lives, from how we communicate, learn, and play, to how we shop, buy, and consume products and services (Dertrouzos, 1997). Evolving from a new communication Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 25(2): 146–178 (February 2008) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www. interscience. wiley. com)  © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.DOI: 10. 1002/mar. 20204 medium into an innovative retailing medium, the Internet is changing the world of retailing (Klein, 1998). As the fastest growing retail channel, the growth of Internet retail sales nearly tripled that of total retail sales in 2004 (U. S. Census Bureau, 2004). Although Internet retail sales remained only 5% of total retail sales in 2005 (DMNews, 2006), its future growth is optimistic. According to Forrester Re search (2004), Internet retail sales will reach over $331 billion by 2010, accounting for 13% of total retail sales in 2010.With the rapid adoption of the Internet and the growing popularity of broadband among the general population, the future of Internet retailing is bright (â€Å"Digital Economy,† 2000). Despite the impressive growth rate and optimistic outlook, there is compelling evidence to suggest that many consumers are still reluctant to purchase via the Internet. Many Internet retailers continue to struggle with low conversion from browsers to purchasers and high shopping cart abandonment (Internet Retailer, 2005a).The proportion of actual purchasers to total browsers has remained low, ranging between 2. 8% and 3. 2% of Web site visitors (Shop. org. & Boston Consulting Group, 2000), compared to nearly 50% of mall visitors who purchase during their visit as reported by Stillerman Jones and Co. (Sansoni, 1999). In addition, shopping cart abandonment during the Interne t shopping process, especially just prior to checkout, has been prevalent among would-be Internet customers (Shop. org, 2001). Such phenomena imply that there are some factors that keep Internet shoppers from buying via the Internet.A primary deterrent of Internet buying is the inability to physically examine items prior to purchase (Internet Retailer, 2005b; Retail Forward, 2001). According to Forrester Research, more than half the consumers who visit an Internet store do not purchase because they cannot physically inspect an item before purchasing (Internet Retailer, 2005b). Consumers need to acquire adequate product information to make a purchase decision, often by physical examination of a product, but Internet shopping does not accommodate physical product evaluations like brick-and-mortar stores do (Nitse et al. 2004). This is more problematic for certain types of products that require sensory evaluation. Holbrook and Moore (1981) suggested that products with aesthetic, sensor y, or symbolic benefits (e. g. , apparel) must be experienced for adequate judgments to be made. Likewise, in Internet shopping the problem of lack of product examination is magnified for products like apparel that require sensory inspection to assure adequate fit or color co-ordinate items.Although apparel is one of the major merchandise categories sold via the Internet (Internet Retailer, 2003), many sales opportunities are lost because of the inability to touch and feel an item prior to a purchase (Beck, 2003; Pastore, 2000). The biggest reason for not purchasing via the Internet was the uncertainty of fit and size. Such problems caused by the lack of adequate product examination further result in high product return rates (e. g. , 30%) and lost customer loyalty. The estimated loss due THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 002/mar 147 to these problems was more than $2 billion dollars in the Internet apparel industry (Beck, 2003 ). Responding to the insufficiency of customer experience related to product examination, Internet retailers have begun to implement innovative technologies that improve the Internet shopping experience. To simulate the store shopping experience in which physical inspection of an item is possible, several technologies that enhance visual product presentation (i. e. , 3-D images, virtual models, digital images, and zooming technology) have been introduced (Retail Forward, 2001).For example, Lands’ End launched My Virtual Model (MVM) Visualization technology in 1998 to allow online shoppers to experience products in the virtual dressing room. However, even though big Internet retailers are making substantial financial commitments to adopt these new technologies to improve consumer experience of online product evaluation, their effects are largely unknown. It is a common belief that new technologies will improve the Internet shopping experience, but available evidence does not s upport this common belief.In their panel study with Internet shoppers, Retail Forward found that the Internet shoppers did not perceive 3-D images to be important to their shopping satisfaction, although they considered them a nice feature to have on the Web site. In addition, one recent study found that survey respondents perceived 3-D images and virtual models to be unimportant features in Internet apparel shopping, whereas large pictures and close-ups were perceived to be important features (Kim, Kim, & Lennon, 2006).Regarding virtual models, although Lands’ End reported the positive impact of MVM on conversation rates and average order value (Direct Marketing, 2001), Lane Bryant, the nation’s largest plus-size retailer, removed MVM technology after using it only for a few years because their customers no longer used it (Lane Bryant, 2005). Likewise, the effects of various product presentation technologies are largely unproven, despite the magnitude of financial com mitment required in adopting new technologies. Product nformation plays an important role in consumer purchase decisions (Kim & Lennon, 2000; Mitchell & Boustani, 1994). Particularly due to the inability to physically evaluate products in Internet shopping, product presentation offered by Internet retailers plays a critical role in satisfying consumer needs for adequate product information for purchase decisions (Fiore, Jin, & Kim, 2005; Nitse et al. , 2004; Then & Delong, 1999). Despite its importance in Internet shopping, very little has been learned about how different online product presentation formats influence consumer decision making in Internet shopping.Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how different online product presentation formats influence consumer attitudes toward the product and purchase intention in Internet shopping. This study focused on the two most basic forms of product presentation; visual (picture) and verbal (text) as the first step in the line of research that would investigate various presentation techniques including 3-D images, virtual models, and zooming technology in the future. Research objectives for this study were 148 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 002/mar Stimuli Information Processing Consumer Responses Imagery Information Processing Affective Attitude Purchase Intention CONTEMPORARY TORN STRETCH DENIM JACKET INFUSED WITH STRETCH FOR A TOUGH LOOK, AND DECORATED IN RHINESTONE ZIG-ZAGS FOR A GIRLY EDGE. ZIP FRONT. HITTING AT THE HIP. 96% COTTON/14% ELASTIC. Discursive Information Processing Cognitive Attitude Figure 1. The conceptual model for the effect of visual and verbal information on attitudes and purchase intentions in Internet shopping. hreefold: (1) to examine the effects of visual and verbal information on consumers’ attitudes toward the product, (2) to examine the effects of visual and verbal information on consumers’ purchase intentions, and (3) to evaluate the rela tive importance of visual and verbal information in product presentation in Internet shopping. Although Internet retail sales remain a small fraction of total retail sales and are considerably less than once predicted, Internet retailing is becoming more important in the retail industry, and consumer demands for Internet shopping are increasing.The findings of this research will provide useful information that Internet retailers can use to develop more effective product presentations and thus satisfy consumer needs for adequate product evaluation in Internet shopping. LITERATURE REVIEW In this section, a conceptual model is developed to explain how visual and verbal information influence consumer attitudes toward a product and further influence Internet purchase intentions (see Figure 1).Visual versus Verbal Information1 Information presented in visual and/or verbal form is a fundamental element of the consumer information environment, especially in a nonpersonal marketing context s uch as advertising or non-store retailing. 1 Visual information is limited to pictorial representation of a product and verbal information is limited to textual information about a product in this study. THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 149 Information is available in visual form, verbal form, or more frequently as a combination of both forms.In Internet shopping, product information is most often presented as a combination of both visual and verbal forms. There have been two distinct approaches to studying the effects of visual versus verbal information in consumer and advertising research. One approach focused on the effects of visual and verbal information on memory (Guenther, Klatzby, & Putnam, 1980; Lutz & Lutz, 1977; Shepard, 1967; Starch, 1966), and the other approach focused on the effects of visual and verbal information on consumer judgments or attitudes (Childers & Houston, 1984; Edell & Staelin, 1983; Hirs chman, 1986; Holbrook & Moore, 1981; Kisielius & Roedder, 1983).The first research stream has generally supported the idea that visual information is superior to verbal information in recall and recognition. Using print advertisements as stimuli, Starch (1966) found that people remembered a print advertisement with a picture better than one without a picture. Shepard (1967) also found that a photo from advertisements was more easily recognized and remembered over time. Subsequent research (Hirschman & Solomon, 1984; Guenther et al. , 1980) provided additional support for the superiority of visual information.Researchers further found that memory was enhanced when there was a certain amount of redundancy or correspondence between visual and verbal information (Childers & Houston, 1984; Son, Reese, & Davie, 1987). The second research stream focused on the influence of visual and verbal stimuli on attitudinal responses (Holbrook, 1985; Mitchell & Olson, 1981). Using print advertisement s, Mitchell and Olson found that the visually oriented advertisement was more effective in generating a positive attitude toward the brand and more effective in communicating attributes of the product advertised than the verbally oriented advertisement.They concluded that visual information led to more changes in beliefs about the product and thus created more positive attitudes and purchase intentions than verbal information. Imagery versus Discursive Information Processing Different forms of information lead to different information processing (e. g. , dual coding hypothesis by Paivio, 1971; left-right hemisphere specialization by Geschwind, 1979; sequential vs. simultaneous processing modes by Das, Kirby, & Jarman, 1975) (see Figure 1). Visual stimuli2 evoke imagery information processing, whereas verbal stimuli evoke discursive information processing.Previous research focused more on discursive processing through an examination of how words or numbers are pooled together in work ing memory to signify or resolve problems 2 Visual (verbal) information is also referred to as visual (verbal) stimuli. The terms â€Å"information† and â€Å"stimuli† are used interchangeably in this study. 150 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar (e. g. , Bettman, 1979), whereas increasing research attention has shifted to the role of imagery information processing (Childers & Houston, 1982, 1984; Childers, Houston, & Heckler, 1985; Rossiter & Percy, 1983; Smith, Houston, & Childers, 1984).Imagery information processing evoked by visual stimuli represents sensory or perceptual information in working memory. Imagery processing sometimes includes multi-sensory dimensions—including sight, taste, smell, and other sensations—or involves a single dimension such as sight, whereas discursive processing by verbal stimuli tends to be detached from inner sensory experience (MacInnis & Price, 1987). Therefore, discursive information processing be comes less concrete than imagery processing due to its lack of sensory experience of information in working memory (MacInnis & Price, 1987).Overall, prior research findings support the superiority of imagery information processing. In a consumer research context, researchers found superior effects for imagery information processing as opposed to discursive processing (Cautela & McCullough, 1978; MacInnis & Price, 1987). MacInnis and Price posited that both discursive and imagery processing can be activated to frame problems, and the way in which a problem is presented with visual or verbal information can have a remarkable impact on problem solving.In brand evaluation, discursive processing may lead to an implicit or explicit summary of brand attributes and features based on some combination rules, whereas imagery processing may lead to a holistic evaluation of the brand. They further speculated that imagery information processing leads consumers to expect a higher likelihood for de cision outcomes than discursive processing because imagery makes it easier to visualize decision outcomes and visualization makes an event look more real (MacInnis & Price, 1987). Prior research findings further supported the effects of imagery processing on purchase intentions and purchase timing.In clinical contexts, Cautela and McCullough (1978) found that imagery processing was more influential in affecting behavioral intentions than discursive processing. Staats and Lohr (1979) posited that imagery could affect behavior by eliciting an emotional response. Images that create positive emotions elicit approach responses, whereas images that create negative emotions elicit avoidance responses. MacInnis and Price (1987) posited that imagery processing may generate a stronger emotional or more concrete sensory experience than discursive processing, which in turn increases desire for the product.They further postulated that the emotions evoked by elaborated imagery processing may redu ce the delay between purchase consideration and actual purchase, thus affecting purchase timing. Moreover, imagery processing can enhance the consumption experience compared to discursive processing because the sensory experience evoked by imagery processing allows consumers to attain some of the enjoyment, satisfaction, or stimulation that would derive from actual consumption (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Lindauer, 1983).THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 151 Dual Coding Theory One consideration in the study of human cognition is the process of verbal coding. Verbal coding proponents assert that verbal coding is vital to perceptual processing and believe that visual information is identified by naming it (Bruner, 1957; Glazner & Clark, 1963). A second approach is imagery coding, and this approach argues that both visual and verbal information are stored most efficiently as nonverbal images.A third approach to cognition is dual coding theory, first proposed by Paivio (1971, 1986). This approach explains that visual information and imagery information processing evoked by visual stimuli are superior to verbal counterparts. The dual coding theory views cognition activities as a result of two mental subsystems, a verbal system (processing verbal events) and an imaginal system (processing nonverbal events). These two subsystems are thought to be separate but interconnected components of human cognition. Each subsystem is linked to particular sensory systems through epresentational connections, and an associative network exists within each subsystem. Each subsystem is also associated with referential connections among them. The verbal system facilitates sequential processing whereas the imaginal system facilitates parallel processing of information. According to Paivio (1971, 1986), encoding of information in memory is done as a verbal form or nonverbal/pictorial form. When a person encounters a visual stimulus like a picture, an imaginal code is activated, whereas the verbal code will be activated when the person encounters a verbal stimulus like text.These two independent and distinct codes form three discrete levels of processing for incoming stimuli. The most basic level of processing is called â€Å"representational processing,† and this processing involves the direct activation of either the verbal or imaginal systems, depending on whether incoming stimuli are visual or verbal. The next level of processing is called â€Å"referential processing† which involves building connections between the verbal and imaginal system. These connections between the two subsystems allow for evocation of imaginal responses from verbal stimuli or vice versa.The most complex processing is called â€Å"associative processing,† which occurs when verbal and visual stimuli are associated with other verbal and visual stimuli, respectively within each subsystem. When a stimulus i s received, it first goes through the representational processing, where either a verbal code or imaginal code is activated. Next, the stimulus passes through referential processing, where the visual cue is named or images are created for verbal cues. In the final step, the stimulus is processed at the associative level, where connections may be established between the verbal and imaginal codes and previously stored information.The dual coding model further assumes that the verbal information is sequentially processed, whereas visual information is simultaneously processed and encoded as both images and verbal traces. Coding redundancy (i. e. , two 152 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar codes are better than one) accounts for the picture superiority effect. This dual process results in superior memory responses to visual stimuli (Paivio & Csapo, 1973). Prior research findings in both psychology and consumer research generally support the picture superiority effe ct (Paivio & Foth, 1970; Peterson & McGee, 1974; Purnell & Solman, 1992).The picture superiority effect is generally attributed to the mental imagery elicited by visual stimuli (Paivio, 1969). Paivio (1971, pp. 135–136) defines mental visual imagery as a â€Å"memory code or associative mediator that provides spatially parallel information that mediates overt responses without necessarily being consciously experienced as a visual image. † Many media, especially advertising, rely greatly on visual and verbal information to present the advertised product. Albeit not exactly the same, the commercial Web sites present a picture of a product with verbal descriptions in a similar manner as in advertising.Recent e-commerce research supports the idea that the Internet works as an advertising medium (Joines, Scherer, & Scheufele, 2003; Joint & Waterhouse, 2003). Singh and Dalal (1999) contended that the commercial Web pages perform the same function as advertisements: to inform consumers of the product and to encourage consumers’ positive attitudes and behaviors toward the product. To date most prior research on the effects of visual and verbal information has been conducted in an advertising context and has generally supported the superior effects of visual information to verbal counterparts.Given the similarities between advertising and the Internet in product presentation, this study expects that the superior effects of visual information found in advertising are likely to hold in Internet shopping. Dual Processing Models of Attitudes A number of attitude researchers have proposed two characteristics of attitudes. The first characteristic proposed is that an attitude is a function of responses to the attitude object (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) and the second characteristic is related to the evaluative nature of an attitude categorized as either good or bad.In spite of pervasive findings of the influence of affect on attitudes (Forgas, 1992: Schwarz, 1990), this view does not posit an affective component to attitudes. There has been disagreement among attitude researchers regarding where to place the affective component. Some researchers have attempted to distinguish affect from attitude by differentiating affect as a more temporary feeling state versus attitude as a more constant and general evaluation (Petty & Cacioppo, 1983), whereas others have expanded the scope of attitude to include all mental phenomena generating positive or negative evaluations (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Greenwald, 1968).Some researchers have embraced affect as a component of attitude but distinguished it from the cognitive component of attitude, which is a deliberate, conscious, and propositional THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 153 thought process (Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994; Millar & Tesser, 1989). A more recent approach is to embrace both affective and cognitive responses as compon ents of attitudes, called â€Å"dual processing of attitudes† (Chen & Chaiken, 1999; Epstein & Pacini, 1999; Koriat & LevySadot, 1999).The cognitive component of attitude represents the deliberate, conscious, and propositional thought process, whereas the affective component of attitude represents immediate evaluation and emotional responses to the attitude object. Among many viable explanations, the heuristic-systematic model (Chen & Chaiken, 1999) identifies two basic modes (systematic vs. heuristic) by which people form attitudes and make social judgments. Systematic processing involves a relatively extensive and logical processing of judgment-relevant information, whereas heuristic processing involves the activation and use of judgment-relevant rules.Another group of attitude researchers posit two different judgment systems: an affect-based system and an information-based system (Koriat & Levy-Sadot, 1999). A third approach to dual processing of attitudes is proposed by E pstein and Pacini (1999). CEST (Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory) proposed two different information-processing systems: a preconscious experiential system and a conscious rational system. All three models delineate two components of attitudes; affective and cognitive attitudes.Based on the dual processing model of attitudes, visual information is posited to influence affective attitudes through imagery information processing, and verbal information is posited to influence cognitive attitudes through discursive information processing. Although it is possible that visual information may influence cognitive attitudes and vice versa, it is posited that the major influences on each component of attitudes are dependent on type of information (see Figure 1). Hypotheses Development Visual Information.Visual information can vary by picture size. Both psychology and advertising research has shown that picture size is positively related to memory and attitudes (Kossyln, 1980; Mitchell & Ols on, 1981; Rossiter & Percy, 1980, 1983). In an advertising context, when the same picture is used in different sizes, larger pictures engender significantly more favorable attitudes than the same picture in a smaller size. Rossiter and Percy (1978, 1983) found that a larger picture generated more positive effect on brand attitude than did a smaller picture.Imagery research suggests that elaborated imagery processing affects behavioral intention (McMahon, 1973), and a large picture better facilitates imagery processing (MacInnis & Price, 1987). As compared to a small picture, a large picture is likely to have a more positive influence on elaborated imagery processing and subsequently affect behavioral intention (Rossiter & Percy, 1978; Smith et al. , 1984). Better elaborated imagery processing increases perceived likelihood of an event (MacInnis & Price, 154 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 987), and people who imagined themselves performing a behavior showed a significant increase in their behavioral intentions (Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter, 1982). Mitchell and Olson (1981) found that positively evaluated visual stimuli increased attitude toward and purchase intention for a product. Thus, the following hypotheses were developed. In the present study, picture size is posited to determine the level of visual information. H1: As compared to people exposed to less visual information, those exposed to more visual information will have more positive attitudes toward the product. a: affective attitude, b: cognitive attitude) H2: As compared to people exposed to less visual information, those exposed to more visual information will have greater purchase intentions. Amount of Verbal Information. Prior research emphasizes the importance of verbal information in purchase decisions, especially in non-store retailing. Spiller and Lohse (1998) conjectured that product descriptions available on the Internet are equivalent to salespeople’s serv ice at retail stores. Their analysis of 137 Internet retail stores revealed that good product descriptions influence ales in Internet shopping. Kim and Lennon (2000) posited that the perceived amount of verbal information moderates the level of perceived risk associated with television apparel shopping and subsequently increases purchase intentions. Other Internet shopping research further confirmed the positive role of product information on consumer behavior (Ballantine, 2005). Accordingly, the following hypotheses were developed. H3: As compared to people exposed to less verbal information, those exposed to more verbal information will have more positive attitudes toward the product. a: affective attitude, b: cognitive attitude) H4: As compared to people exposed to less verbal information, those exposed to more verbal information will have greater purchase intentions. In Internet retailing, the size of product pictures varies to a great extent and so does the amount of verbal pro duct information. According to a recent content analysis of Internet apparel retailers (Kim et al. , 2006), picture sizes substantially varied across 111 apparel retail Web sites that were fairly good representations of Internet apparel retailers. Picture size ranged from 100 100 pixels to 800 600 pixels across apparel retail Web sites.The researchers also found that the amount of verbal product information varied to a great extent across retail Web sites. When both visual and verbal information are available in Internet THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 155 retailing, it is further expected that visual and verbal information interact to influence consumer responses to the product. Therefore, the following hypotheses were developed. H5: Visual and verbal information will interact to affect attitudes toward the product. a: affective attitude, b: cognitive attitude) H6: Visual and verbal information will interact to affe ct purchase intentions. Prior research findings in both psychology and consumer research support the picture superiority effect in consumer memory and attitudes (Paivio & Foth, 1970; Peterson & McGee, 1974; Purnell & Solman, 1992). Therefore, the following hypotheses were developed. H7: Visual information will explain more variance in attitudes than verbal information. H8: Visual information will explain more variance in purchase intentions than verbal information.METHODOLOGY This study employed a Web experiment using a mock retail Web site. According to Hantula (2005), Web experiments can be realistic and may be indistinguishable from real-life online interactions. For a mock Web site, a fictitious brand name was used to avoid any effects on attitudes and purchase intentions due to well-known brand names. A pretest was first conducted to develop visual and verbal stimuli for a mock Web site simulating Internet apparel shopping. The present study focused on apparel products consisti ng of multiple apparel categories such as tops, blouses, pants, skirts, and dresses.As a key type of item sold online (Internet Retailer, 2003), apparel requires sensory evaluation to make a purchase decision and thus is deemed appropriate for the present study. Stimulus Development Visual Stimuli. First, visual stimuli (pictures of apparel items) were developed by downloading apparel pictures from commercial Web sites. Apparel items were selected from commercial Web sites because items sold on commercial Web sites are expected to be desirable by target customers, thus encouraging research participants to engage in simulated online shopping.A total of 28 apparel items were initially selected, including woven shirts, knit tops, pants, skirts, dresses, sweaters, and jackets for women. To avoid extraneous factors, only pictures of garments without 156 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar models were selected. All pictures were shown on a body form. To assure a consis tent size of garments, all 28 items were tried on and adjusted to fit the dummy model with full body, developed using Adobe Photoshop. The same image size of pants and shirts do not reflect the same garment size because pants are longer than shirts.If their image sizes are the same, pants are probably smaller than shirts in terms of garment size. This problem was solved by fitting apparel items to the dummy body. Consistency in background, angle of photo shots, and the quality of pictures was achieved through a careful sampling process and touch-up using Photoshop. For the current research, the size of pictures was manipulated (small, large) to vary visual information. The small-size picture was one-fourth of the large-size picture. Verbal Stimuli.Verbal product information to accompany apparel items was created using evaluative criteria for apparel purchases developed by Eckman, Damhorst, and Kadolph (1990). Eckman et al. categorized apparel evaluative criteria into intrinsic and e xtrinsic attributes. First, intrinsic criteria refer to product attributes that cannot be changed or manipulated without changing the physical characteristics of the product itself (e. g. , style, fiber content). Extrinsic criteria refer to product attributes that are not component parts of the physical products but are created by the manufacturer or retailer (e. g. , price, brand name).Both intrinsic and extrinsic criteria are used in apparel purchase situations, but prior research shows that intrinsic criteria are more important to consumers than extrinsic criteria (Eckman et al. , 1990; Jacoby, Olson, & Haddock, 1971). In this study, extrinsic and intrinsic verbal stimuli were developed. The intrinsic criteria were (1) style (design features), (2) construction details, (3) fit, (4) fiber content (or fabric name), (5) care instruction, (6) color (also print information for printed fabrics), and (7) size; the one extrinsic criterion was (8) price. Amount of verbal information was m anipulated as high and low.The high amount of verbal information included all eight pieces of information; the low amount of verbal information included three pieces of intrinsic information (style, color, and size) and one piece of extrinsic information (price). This manipulation was based on prior research findings on consumer need for information in making apparel purchase decisions. When purchasing apparel, price, style, and color were the most frequently sought types of information, followed by fiber content (or fabric name), garment care instructions, brand name, and fit information (Davis, 1987; Martin, 1971).Thus, the low verbal condition included the most needed information (style, color, price) in addition to information about size. Size information was added because a shopper must choose a size to proceed with a purchase. For the high verbal condition, further information was added that consumers seek when purchasing apparel, such as fiber content (or fabric name), care i nstructions, and fit (Davis, 1987; Martin, 1971). Detailed style information THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 157 nd construction details were also added to the high verbal condition, based on the suggestion that more sensory-oriented, tactile descriptions of a product are desired in Internet shopping (Park & Stoel, 2005). Therefore, the low verbal condition was designed to include information necessary to make an apparel purchase, whereas the high information condition was intended to include additional information that consumers are likely to desire when shopping for apparel online. Pretests A pretest of apparel pictures was first conducted to select visual stimuli for the main study and also to perform a manipulation check on verbal stimuli.The goal was to select apparel items that were neutral in terms of attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness, to minimize the potential effect of apparel items per se on attitudes and purchase intentions (e. g. , a very attractive apparel item will be desired by many people regardless of presentation format). College women (n 44) participated in the pretest, using a mock Web site in exchange for course credit. During the pretest, all participants evaluated 28 apparel items in the same size (picture only) on attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness measures, one apparel item at a time.Three evaluative measures used a 7-point rating scale from 1 (highly unattractive; highly unfashionable; highly unlikable) to 7 (highly attractive; highly fashionable; highly likable). To select neutral apparel stimuli, scores from the three evaluative measures for each apparel item were collapsed, based on the consistency of three measures (all s 0. 90). The possible summed scores per item ranged from 3 to 21. The 10 apparel items with the most neutral ratings on the three measures (summed scores ranged from 11 to 13; midpoint 12) were selected for the main stu dy.To assess order effects, three different presentation orders of the 28 apparel items were used in the pretest. MANOVA revealed no effect for presentation order [Wilks’s l 0. 94, F(6, 70) 0. 37, p 0. 90] on the three dependent variables (attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness). During the pretest, a manipulation check of verbal stimuli was also conducted. After evaluating apparel items, participants were randomly assigned to one verbal condition (high vs. low) to evaluate their perceptions of the amount of verbal product information.For stimulus sampling purposes, two apparel items were evaluated in each verbal condition. Pretest participants were randomly assigned to one of the verbal conditions (high vs. low) and viewed both apparel items under their assigned condition. After viewing the items, participants rated the perceived amount of verbal information in the product description using a 7-point rating scale from 1 (very little) to 7 (very much). Responses evo ked by both outfits were summed ( 0. 85) and used as a measure of the perceived amount of information.One-way ANOVA was performed to examine the effect of the verbal manipulation on perceived amount of information 158 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar and found a main effect for verbal condition on perceived amount of information [F(1, 42) 6. 63, p . 05] Pretest participants exposed to the high amount of verbal information (M 11. 45, SD 2. 04) perceived more information than those exposed to the low amount of information (M 10. 00, SD 1. 69). Thus, the manipulation of the amount of verbal information was appropriately perceived by the pretest participants. Instrument Development Attitude Measures.Attitude items were adopted from Hirschman (1986). Affective attitudes were measured by attractiveness and likableness, and cognitive attitudes were measured by perceived amount of information and perceived usefulness of information. All attitude items used 7-point Lik ert scales with endpoints of 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). Purchase Intention Measure. One item was used to measure Internet purchase intention. Adopted from Taylor and Baker (1994), this item addressed the intention to purchase an apparel item viewed during the Web experiment in a certain time frame (i. . , in the upcoming year) using a 7-point Likert rating scale with endpoints of 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). Other Measures. Two items were developed to measure perceptions of picture size and amount of verbal information, respectively. Other items assessing prior experience with the Internet and Internet shopping and demographic information were also included. Except for demographic items, all items used 7-point rating scales. To enhance the realism of the experiment, this study used a Web experiment so that participants could participate when and where convenient.Unlike lab experiments in which participants use the same types of computers, the part icipants in this study could use various types of computers and monitors. Though improving realism, this method posed a concern due to additional variability with regard to picture size as a function of types of computers used to participate in the experiment. Therefore, information about types of computer, monitor size, and monitor resolution was collected to better interpret the results. Instructions were provided to participants about how to find the information about resolution of their monitors.EXPERIMENT 1 Procedure Experiment 1 was a 2 (Visual: Large vs. Small) 2 (Verbal: High vs. Low) between-subjects design. When participants logged onto the mock THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 159 Web site, they were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment conditions and evaluated all 10 apparel items for stimulus sampling purposes (Fontenelle, Phillips, & Lane, 1985). Stimulus sampling is used so that results can be generalized over more than one stimulus (i. e. , to increase external validity).In this research, using 10 apparel items ensures that any significant effects are not due to idiosyncratic characteristics of a single stimulus. The order of presentation of the apparel items was completely randomized to distribute any order effects randomly over the four treatment conditions. Participants were instructed to assume that they had enough money to purchase any items they wished to buy, to minimize the effect of monetary constraints on purchase intentions. Participants College women (n 159) enrolled at a large Midwestern university participated in a Web experiment in exchange for course credit.College women were recruited for the study because young women comprise a significant portion of Internet shoppers. According to Internet Retailer (2004c), they make up 63% of shoppers at online apparel and beauty sites. Additionally, research evidence supports that college students do not differ from typical consumers in terms of beliefs and attitudes (Duvasula et al. , 1997). After eliminating unusable responses due to incomplete questionnaires, there were 145 usable questionnaires. The mean age of participants was 22 (see Table 1).More than 80% of participants were juniors or seniors. Over 88% of participants owned PCs and almost 95% of them had Internet access at home. Results Manipulation Checks. After completing the dependent measures, participants rated the perceived picture size and perceived amount of verbal information. As anticipated, ANOVA results indicated that actual picture size had a significant effect on perceived size of picture [F (1, 143) 184. 02, p . 001] and actual amount of verbal information had a significant effect on perceived amount of verbal information [F(1, 143) 56. 9, p . 001]. Participants who viewed large pictures perceived pictures to be larger (M 5. 07, SD 1. 06) than those who viewed small pictures (M 2. 43, SD 1. 28). Participants exposed to the high amount of verbal information perceived more verbal information (M 5. 23, SD 1. 18) than those exposed to the low amount of information (M 3. 55, SD 1. 48). Thus, experimental manipulations were successful. Preliminary Analysis. Participants evaluated all 10 apparel items on the four attitudinal items and purchase intention. After checking reliabilities (all s 0. 0), scores for each item were collapsed for all 10 apparel 160 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants. Experiment 1 (n 145) Characteristics Age 20 20–25 26–30 30 Academic standing Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate student Own PC Yes No Access to the Internet Yes No Monitor size Smaller than 15? 15? –17? 19? –21? Bigger than 21? Monitor resolution 640 480 800 600 1024 768 Others f 12 121 8 4 3 12 62 58 10 128 17 137 8 12 93 34 6 4 93 45 3 % 8. 3 83. 4 5. 5 2. 8 2. 1 8. 3 42. 8 40. 0 6. 9 88. 3 11. 7 94. 5 5. 8. 3 64. 1 23. 5 4. 1 2. 8 64. 1 31. 0 2. 1 f 15 133 1 1 1 18 74 55 2 122 28 144 6 15 102 30 3 11 84 48 7 Experiment 2 (n 150) % 10. 0 88. 7 0. 7 0. 7 0. 7 12. 0 49. 3 36. 7 1. 3 81. 3 18. 7 96. 0 4. 0 10. 0 68. 0 20. 0 2. 0 7. 3 56. 0 32. 0 4. 7 stimuli. Scores for each stimulus ranged from 10 to 70 (10 stimuli with a 7-point rating scale). Then the two items tapping affective attitudes were summed ( 0. 97); likewise the two items tapping cognitive attitudes were summed ( 0. 96). Affective attitude scores ranged from 20 to 140 and cognitive attitude scores ranged from 20 to 138.Purchase intention scores ranged from 10 to 67. Analyses. All hypothesized relationships were initially examined in a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with affective and cognitive attitudinal responses to apparel stimuli and purchase intention as dependent variables; visual information varied by picture size and verbal information varied by the amount of product information were the independent variabl es. Results indicated that amount of verbal information was significantly related to the set of dependent variables [Wilks’s 0. 82, F(3, 139) 10. 17, p . 0001].Follow-up univariate analyses of THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 161 variance indicated that the amount of verbal information was related to both affective [F(1, 141) 6. 9, p . 05, 2 0. 04] and cognitive [F(1, 141) 30. 74, p . 0001, 2 0. 17] attitudes. Participants exposed to more verbal information about the product expressed stronger affective attitudes (M 95. 07, SD 21. 53) than those exposed to less verbal information (M 85. 25, SD 24. 72). Also, participants exposed to more verbal information exhibited stronger cognitive attitudes (M 112. 6, SD 19. 40) than those exposed to less verbal information (M 89. 34, SD 29. 38). Therefore, H3a and H3b positing the effects of verbal information on affective and cognitive attitudes were supported. No main eff ect for verbal information on purchase intention was found, and no significant multivariate effect was found for visual information or the interaction. Thus, the remaining hypotheses were not supported. Post-hoc Analysis. Results from Experiment 1 were surprising in that no effects for visual information were found, despite evidence from previous literature supporting picture superiority.Picture size had no effect on affective attitudes, whereas the amount of verbal information had a significant effect on affective attitudes. Additional analyses were performed to see whether participant perceptions of visual and verbal information have different effects on attitudes and purchase intentions. Simple regression analyses were performed using perceived picture size and perceived amount of information as independent variables and both components of attitudes and purchase intention as dependent variables. Simple regression analyses revealed that perceived picture size was positively relate d to affective attitudes [F(1, 143) 19. 0, p . 0001] and also to cognitive attitudes [ F(1, 143) 5. 40, p . 05]. Perceived amount of verbal information was also a significant predictor of affective attitudes [F(1, 143) 23. 32, p . 0001] and cognitive attitudes [F(1, 143) 155. 12, p . 0001]. Further, both perceived picture size and perceived amount of verbal information were significant predictors of purchase intention [F(1, 143) 14. 34, p . 0001; F(1, 143) 17. 52, p . 0001, respectively]. Whereas objectively manipulated picture size had no effect on either affective or cognitive attitudes, perceived picture size was a significant predictor of both components of attitudes.In addition, both visual and verbal information had a significant influence on purchase intention when participant perceptions of picture size and amount of verbal information were used instead of objectively manipulated visual and verbal information. Examination of monitor size and monitor resolution provided usefu l insights to explain why there were no effects for visual information as hypothesized. Monitor size used for the experiment greatly varied from 15? to 21? (see Table 1). For resolution, about 64% of participants used 800 600 pixels and 31% used 1024 768 pixels.Thus, although picture size was objectively manipulated in the experiment, the actual size of pictures that participants saw during the experiment varied depending on both the size and resolution of monitors used to participate in the 162 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar study. Although participants were instructed to participate in this study by logging onto the Web site when and where convenient in order to enhance the realism of the Internet shopping context, variations in monitor size and resolution may have confounded true effects of visual information.To avoid such problems, Experiment 2 was conducted to expose participants to all four treatment conditions. In this way, although actual picture siz e viewed by participants might vary depending on monitor size and resolution, participants could see relative differences between large and small pictures. This context is also more realistic, given that in actual Internet shopping situations picture sizes vary greatly across different retail Web sites as do shoppers’ computer monitors. EXPERIMENT 2 Procedure Experiment 2 was a 2 (Visual: Large vs.Small) 2 (Verbal: High vs. Low) within-subjects design. Eight apparel items were selected from the 10 items used in Experiment 1 by eliminating two items deemed inappropriate due to seasonal change. Participants were exposed to all four visual by verbal treatment conditions and evaluated two apparel items in each condition, for a total of eight apparel items rated. Sixteen different presentation orders of the experimental conditions were used to balance out order effects. The presentation order of eight apparel items was fully randomized.The questionnaire used in Experiment 2 was mo dified from the questionnaire used in Experiment 1 by eliminating the questions about perceptions of picture size and amount of information. Aside from these differences, the stimulus materials, procedures, independent variables, and dependent variables were identical to those of Experiment 1. Scores on the dependent variables were collapsed for two apparel items within each treatment condition. Participants College women (n 160) enrolled at a large Midwestern university participated in a Web experiment in exchange for course credit.Participants in Experiment 2 did not overlap with participants in Experiment 1. After eliminating unusable responses due to incomplete questionnaires, there were 150 useable questionnaires. The mean age of the participants was 21 (see Table 1). A majority of participants were juniors or seniors. More than 81% of participants owned PCs and 96% of them had Internet access at home. Overall, demographic characteristics of participants in Experiment 2 were si milar to participants in Experiment 1. THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 002/mar 163 Results Repeated measures MANOVA involving all dependent measures indicated that one or more dependent variables differed by visual information [Wilks’s 0. 91, F (3, 147) 5. 06, p . 01], by verbal information [Wilks’s 0. 31, F (3, 147) 108. 00, p . 0001], and by an interaction between visual and verbal information [Wilks’s 0. 92, F (3, 147) 4. 15, p . 01]. Follow-up repeated measures ANOVAs for visual information found that visual information had significant main effects on affective [F(1, 149) 7. 73, p . 01, 2 0. 04] and cognitive attitudes [F(1, 149) 11. 63, p . 1, 2 0. 07], thus supporting H1a and H1b. Purchase intention was not related to visual information, thus failing to support H2. Subsequent ANOVAs for verbal information indicated that amount of verbal information had significant main effects on affective [F(1, 149 ) 23. 50, p . 0001, 2 0. 13] and cognitive attitudes [F(1, 149) 289. 57, p . 0001, 2 0. 70]. Purchase intention was also significantly related to the amount of verbal information [F(1, 149) 7. 64, p . 01, 2 0. 04]. H3a, H3b, and H4 positing the main effects of verbal information on dependent variables were all supported.Follow up ANOVAs were further conducted for interactions (see Figure 2). Results indicated that visual by verbal interaction effects were significant for cognitive attitudes [F(1, 149) 9. 68, p . 01, 2 0. 05] and purchase intentions [F(1, 149) 3. 95, p . 05, 2 0. 02]. Simple effects tests revealed that the effect of visual information on cognitive attitudes was significant [F(1, 149) 17. 30, p . 0001] only when the amount of verbal information was low. When the amount of verbal information was low, participants who viewed the large picture exhibited more positive cognitive attitudes (M 18. 6, SD 4. 68) than those who viewed the small picture (M 16. 92, SD 4. 70). Thi s difference was larger when the amount of verbal information was low rather than when the amount of verbal information was high. The effect of verbal information on cognitive attitudes was significant both when picture size was large [F(1, 149) 182. 81, p . 0001] and small [F(1, 149) 268. 20, p . 0001]. Data supported H5b, but not H5a. Simple effects tests further indicated that the effect of visual information on purchase intention was significant when the amount of verbal information was low [F(1, 149) 5. 9, p . 05] (see Figure 2). When the amount of verbal information was low, participants who viewed large pictures (M 7. 05, SD 3. 08) exhibited stronger purchase intentions than those who viewed small pictures (M 6. 50, SD 2. 81). Simple effects tests also indicated that the effect of verbal information on purchase intention was significant when small pictures were used [ F(1, 149) 10. 52, p . 01]. When exposed to small pictures, participants who received more verbal information (M 7. 30, SD 3. 08) expressed stronger purchase intentions than those who received less verbal information (M 6. 0, SD 2. 81). H6 was thus supported. 164 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 24 23. 32 22. 97 Purchase Intentions 7. 3 7. 2 7. 30 7. 23 7. 05 Verbal Info High Low Cognitive Attitudes 22 Verbal Info 20 18. 36 18 16. 92 High Low 7. 1 7. 0 6. 9 6. 8 6. 7 6. 6 16 Large Small 6. 5 Large 6. 50 Small Picture Size Picture Size Figure 2. Visual by verbal interaction. H7 and H8 posited that visual information varied by picture size would explain more variance in attitudes and purchase intentions than verbal information.Omega squared ( A2) was used to assess the relative importance of each of the independent variables. According to Cohen’s (1977) guidelines, 2 0. 15 is a large effect, 2 0. 06 is a medium effect, and 2 0. 01 is a small effect. As shown in Table 2, verbal information had a larger effect on attitudes than visual information. Contrary to predi ction of H7, verbal information accounted for 13% of the total variance in affective attitudes, whereas 4% was accounted for by visual information. For cognitive attitudes, verbal information accounted for 10 times more variance than visual information ( 2 0. 0 vs. 2 0. 07) in cognitive attitudes. In regards to purchase intention, verbal information had a moderate effect on purchase intention ( 2 0. 04), whereas visual information did not have a significant effect. Discussion The present study examined how different presentation formats in Internet shopping influence consumer attitudes toward the product and subsequent purchase intention. Extending visual and verbal research in advertising into the Internet shopping context, this study investigated the effects of visual and verbal information on consumer responses.Table 2. Comparisons of Effects ( Experiment 2. 2 A ) of Visual and Verbal Information in Visual by verbal interaction ns 0. 05 0. 02 Visual information Affective attitude Cognitive attitude Purchase intention 0. 04 0. 07 ns Verbal information 0. 13 0. 70 0. 04 THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 165 Table 3. Summary of Experiment 1 and 2. Experiment 2 (within-subjects design) MANOVA Visual Sig. ** Sig. ** ns Verbal Sig. **** Sig. **** Sig. **Experiment 1 (between-subjects design) MANOVA Visual Affective attitudes Cognitive attitudes Purchase intentions *p . 05. **p . 01. ***p . 001. ****p . 0001. Regression Perceived visual Sig. **** Sig. * Sig. **** Perceived verbal Sig. **** Sig. **** Sig. **** Verbal Sig. * Sig. **** ns ns ns ns As summarized in Table 3, the findings showed that both visual and verbal information have significant effects on consumers’ affective and cognitive attitudes toward apparel products. However, only verbal information had a significant effect on purchase intention.One noteworthy finding is that when consumer perceptions of picture size and the amount of verbal information were used instead of actual picture size and amount of verbal information, both visual and verbal information significantly influenced both affective and cognitive attitudes and also affected purchase intentions. The findings further support verbal superiority in product presentation in Internet shopping. This is contrary to the predicted visual superiority based on previous literature supporting picture superiority and need for sensory evaluation for apparel products.Although it was anticipated that visual information would have stronger effects on consumer attitudes toward apparel products, especially affective responses, and purchase intentions, the results of the study suggest verbal superiority for both attitudes (affective and cognitive) and purchase intention. Based on the guidelines for effect sizes ( 2) of Cohen (1977), it was observed that verbal information had large effects for both affective and cognitive attitudes and had a moderate effect on purchas e intention.Although both visual and verbal information had significant effects on affective attitudes, visual information had a weaker impact on affective attitudes than verbal information. In regards to cognitive attitudes, both visual and verbal information influenced cognitive attitudes, and verbal information had a stronger impact on cognitive attitudes as expected. The effect of visual information on cognitive attitudes was significant only when the amount of verbal information was low and it was a medium effect. Regarding purchase intentions, verbal information had a significant effect only when small pictures were used, and it was a small effect.Although the findings of verbal superiority were unexpected, the findings of the study are generally consistent with findings in Smith (1991). In an 166 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar advertising context, Smith found that the effect of visual information was dominant only when visual information conveys diffe rent messages from verbal claims. When both visual and verbal information conveyed the same message, Smith found that inferences based on visual stimuli were weaker than inferences based on verbal claims due to higher uncertainty associated with visual stimuli.Verbal information in an ad makes explicit, specific claims about product attributes or performance, which facilitate inferences about unknown information about a product. On the contrary, claims made using visual information tend to be less explicit and less specific, which is likely to result in a heightened uncertainty of inferences. Thus, in the present study, it is possible that the effect of visual information was lessened compared to verbal information because both visual and verbal stimuli conveyed the same messages about the product to some extent, especially for style information and construction details.In addition, the way visual and verbal stimuli were manipulated in this study may have contributed to the stronger effects of verbal information than visual information. For visual stimuli, picture size was manipulated such that a small picture was one-fourth of a large picture. Despite the size difference, the same pictures were used. However, for verbal stimuli, the amount of verbal information was manipulated such that a low verbal condition did not include four pieces of intrinsic information that were provided in the high verbal condition.Therefore, the difference between high and low verbal conditions (i. e. , absence of information) may be larger than the difference between visual condition groups, resulting in larger effects of verbal information. Indeed, visual information had a significant impact on both affective and cognitive attitudes, albeit weaker effects than verbal information. Another plausible explanation of the findings of the study is that perhaps verbal product information used in this study evoked imagery information processing in addition to discursive information proces sing because of concrete verbal stimuli (e. . , construction details of apparel). Imagery processing can be induced by a number of external sources. Pictures are the most well-known predictor of imagery (Paivio, 1971; Shepard, 1967). The superiority of visual information has been attributed to the imagery induced by visual information as compared to discursive information processing by verbal information (Childers & Houston, 1984; Lutz & Lutz, 1977; Paivio, 1971). In addition to pictures, concrete verbal stimuli can stimulate imagery processing (Paivio & Csapo, 1973; Paivio & Foth, 1970; Richardson, 1980).The level of the concreteness of words was found to be significantly related to the level of imagery value (Pavio, Yuille, & Madigan, 1968). Paivio (1971) also posited that the verbal superiority of high imagery values can occur. In this study, the difference between high and low verbal conditions was the amount of product information, especially intrinsic product information inclu ding construction/style details, fit, fiber/fabric information, and care instructions. THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI: 10. 1002/mar 167In particular, construction details and style information provide concrete information about apparel products (e. g. , the pointed collar and barrel cuffs, pearl buttons for front closure, rounded shirt bottom, and single chest pocket; two layers of silk with a sheer top, a pattern of slender roses with delicate, thorny stems in deep brown and green, transparent seed and bugle beads across the upper layer). Such verbal information may have led participants to engage in imagery information processing as well as discursive information processing evoked by other verbal messages.Additionally, previous research supports that the effects of visual and verbal stimuli are interactive in such a way that the addition of verbal stimuli that explains the message conveyed by visual stimuli enhances the use of imagery processing (Bower, Karlin, & Dueck, 1975; Childers & Houston, 1984). Concrete verbal descriptions of style information and construction details of apparel items may have helped participants interpret the picture of the item and thus may have stimulated imagery processing. These interpretations may explain why verbal information had stronger effects on both affective and cognitive attitudes.The concept of perceptual fluency provides useful insights to interpret the findings of the study. Concrete verbal descriptions used in this study are likely to improve perceptual fluency (e. g. , the ease of identifying the physical identity of the stimulus). The availability of concrete verbal infor